Adult Learning Strategies

Jackie Dobrovolny presents a model for adult learning in Learning Strategies, an October 2003 article in Learning Circuits.  Dobrovolny highlights how adult learners use 5 key learning strategies (outlined below) and how instructional design can support these key adult learning strategies. 

Learning Strategies:

1. Metacognition (defined as self-assessment and self-correction):  Though self-assessment and reflection, learners evaluate their progress and modify their learning strategies in order to find their own "preferred" learning strategy.
   
2. Reflection: Learners use reflection to visualize, see the "big picture", compare and recall information and experiences.
3. Prior experiences:  Learners frequently "compare and contrast" course content with their own experiences.  While this can cause confusion if the information conflicts or difficulty in learning if they lack prior experiences, prior experiences can help to validate new information.
   
4. Conversations: Leaning through discussions or conversation helps learners review and extend their understanding of the content, gain confidence in their mastery of the content and learn by explaining to others.
   
5. Authentic experiences:  Authentic experiences allow learners to apply what they have learned, modify their skills based on their environment (that may not mirror the learning environment) and improve job performance.
   

Instructional Design Implications: Dobrovolny provides instructional design techniques to match these key adult learning strategies, including:

To Self-assess / Self-correct:

• Frequent "self-checks, practice exercises, and / or hands-on simulations" along with feedback,
• Clearly defined goals so that learners can continuously self-assess their progress to the goals, and
  
• Content that can be re-read, easily searched and printed for future off-line use (or as a job aid).

To use Reflection:

• Provide examples (case studies, simulations, hands-on experiences) that show ways to apply the content (make it relevant),
• Require learners to create their own examples,
• Pose Rhetorical questions,
  
• Use "building block analogy" to show how pieces of content relates (to each other and to the whole), and
  
• Allow access to course material after the course is over.

To use Prior Experiences:

• Identify range and type of prior experiences during course analysis, and
  
• Continuously create, compare and contrast links between course content and learner's prior experiences.

To use Conversations:

• Encourage discussion of the course content - with everyone (inside and outside of the class).
  
• Discussions with novices helps the learner break down the material while discussions with co-workers or experts provides an understanding of skill or knowledge gaps.

To use Authentic Experiences:

• Provide examples of situations where learners can apply their knowledge,
• Conclude training with reflection questions, and
  
• Describe or demonstrate multiple approaches or procedures.
  

Knowledge Transfer: Boomer Brain Drain?

The linked article appeared in T + D Magazine and addresses the issue of transferring the knowledge and skills of one generation of workers to the next as the Baby Boomer generation nears retirement.  The article highlights the demographic issues that are causing what the author views as a Baby Boom Brain Drain.  By 2010, the number of 55 to 64 year olds (those retiring out of senior level positions) is expected to grow by 52 percent, while the number of 35 to 44 year olds (those moving into senior level positions) is expected to decline by 10 percent.  Companies are reacting to this anticipated dramatic loss of experienced workers (and the corporate knowledge they posses) by finding ways to facilitate "intergenerational learning".  Suggested practices to transfer the knowledge and expertise of senior employees to the next generation of workers include:

• Utilizing retirees (or soon to be retirees) as trainers and coaches,
• Embracing communities of practice and other informal networks to generate ideas, to accelerate communication and to solve problems,
  
• Expanding repositories of content,
• Preparing video archives to preserve not only information, but also the "context" within the job processes,
  
• Utilizing retirees to assist in the identification and mapping of key job competencies,
• Enhancing mentor programs to pair retiring employees and other workers in "learning-based" teams
  

Be a good girl, have a good time and learn a lot

Linked here is an Educause article entitled "Engage Me or Enrage Me". Lately, I have been drawn to reading articles like this about educating the so-called "Net Generation". Like others, this article makes a case that we need to edu-tain these students. The main premise of these articles is that education (in this era of the Xbox and the iPod) needs a complete overhaul in order to engage students so that they are no longer "bored" with school. In this article, the author states that there is a group of student who are "...convinced that school is totally devoid of interest and totally irrelevant to their life. In fact, they find school much less interesting than the myriad of devices they carry in their pockets’ and backpacks. These kids are used to having anyone who asks for their attention . . . work really hard to earn it. When what is being offered isn't engaging, these students truly resent their time being wasted . . . The motto for this group? 'Engage me or enrage me'."

This morning, I sat here for an hour trying to articulate what makes me so angry about this viewpoint. I have mulled over this article (and others like it) for weeks. I have started outline after outline trying to express why this viewpoint is a cop out that lowers the bar (and our expectations) for students. This view is a threat to the basic expectation that students come to school prepared to work (yes, school is work) for their education. Student "engagement" and motivation is fascinating. This article (and others like it), place the responsibility (and blame) for student motivation solely on the shoulders of the school and the instructional design which the author notes is "boring" to this generation of students.

The author asserts that at school "it is so boring that the kids, used to this other life, just can't stand it." Further, he cites that the old school curriculum is to blame. Does this include the old school curriculum standbys of reading, writing and arithmetic that adults need in order to function in society? Unfortunately, what is missing in most articles like this is an analysis of the students' responsibility. What about the level of attention and engagement we must demand of them? The author notes, "They certainly don't have short attention spans for their games, movies, music or internet surfing." Of course not - those activities are all low effort leisure pursuits. It is not plausible to compare the level of personal involvement needed to watch a movie to the attention and engagement required of a student to actively listen and participate during lectures, to write papers and to study for exams in school. Further, it is not practical to compare the rewards. While games, movies and internet surfing all provide instant gratification, it is nothing compared to the long term benefits of a hard-earned education. It is lowering the bar to defend students who do not put forth the effort and rise to the challenge. There is no way around it. You must work (hard) for your education. We must instill in students that education is work and work has its own rewards far beyond the immediate gratification of the current leisure time pursuits.

Which brings me to the title of this post . . . Every time (and I mean every time) I leave my mother (from the time I can remember through today), she says, "Be a good girl, have a good time and learn a lot." These three little phrases sum up a wonderful approach to life - and to education. The underlying theme is that life is what YOU make it - not what someone else creates for you. It is up to YOU to be good. It is up to YOU to have a good time. It is up to YOU to learn a lot. While I firmly believe that it is the responsibility of all educators to walk out the door and prepare to educate students with this same mantra running though their heads, I return to my argument that it is a cop out if we do not expect (and demand) the same of students. While I firmly agree that it is our responsibility to make education as relevant and engaging as possible, we must instill in learners that it is their education and it is up to them to be good, have a good time and learn a lot.

Communities of Practice

Choi, M. Communities of practice: an alternative learning model for knowledge creation. British Journal of Educational Technology v. 37 no. 1 (January 2006) p. 143-6

The highlighted article (available via this link with an IU network ID and password) discusses the use of "communities of practice" (CoP) as a learning model for corporate training.  The author refers to a CoP as a group connected by "shared competence" and "mutual interest" where experience and knowledge is shared (and created) among team members versus conveyed by an instructor.  The author asserts that a CoP is an effective way to not only convey knowledge, but to also produce creative and valuable knowledge that is relevant to the employees and the company.

The report briefly discusses a CoP model used as an employee training program at Samsung Electronics in Korea and includes results of a survey of the Samsung CoP members. While the Samsung HR department facilitates participation and provides support (materials), the teams run independently with an elected leader and shared goals established by the team members.  The survey results provide insight into conditions that contribute to CoP success.  In order of rank, the following were listed as the top factors impacting the CoP activity:

1. Team member learning motivation
2. Creation of work-related knowledge and sharing of expertise in CoP participation
3. Relationship between outcome of CoP and performance
4. Trust among members
5. Leadership trait of team leader 

 

Educating the Net Generation

There has been a lot of press lately about the Net Generation. Educause published a series of articles on Educating the Net Generation. I began reading the series with an article from a student's perspective.

Unfortunately, after reading the article, I do not have a clear understanding of the problem nor the author's suggestions for a solution. While I do believe that teachers have a responsibility to find every way possible to reach and engage students, I feel this article puts to much emphasis on how education needs to change in order to accommodate a student’s short attention span (a problem that is in no way the sole domain of the Net Generation).

As an example, the author notes that the Net Generation will get bored if not challenged properly. “Bored” is a word used a lot in our culture. It implies someone is not doing something to “entertain”. However, there are a few problems with the author’s argument: 1) members of all generations have been “bored” from time to time in school (the Net Generation is not the first to experience that life is not always fun and games), 2) learners often need to work very hard to stay engaged and challenged, regardless of the learning environment, and 3) education should never be confused with entertainment.

I look forward to reading the other articles in this series.  However, at this point, I am still not convinced that this generation learns any differently than prior generations. While technology used in education will continue to advance (as it is in most industries), I ague that the process of learning is not different from what it was in prior generations. In addition, I am troubled that this article implies that the responsibility for student motivation falls solely on educators and the educational system. While there are many new tools available to reach and accommodate different learning styles, in the end, learning takes hard work, focus, concentration and dedication from both the teacher and the student. Whether instruction is delivered from a professor in a lecture hall or on a message board, the responsibility to learn also falls on the student. However, this is likely a lesson to be learned through experience and with increased maturity.

Evaluation of "Learning Communities" in an Online Master's Degree Program

The linked article, Discovering the Meaning of Community in an Online Master's Degree Program, examines an online learning community from the perspective of adult learners in an online master's degree program in instructional design and technology (sound familiar?) at California State University - Fullerton.  The paper was prepared by several instructors in the program and summarizes a survey of students conducted by the university.  The purpose of the survey was to evaluate online learning community development within the program.

The authors conclude that an online learning community creates "foundations for transformative learning."  Further, they cite prior findings that, "strong feelings of community increase the flow of information among all learners, the availability of support, commitment to group goals, cooperation among members and satisfaction with group efforts".  The authors report that the following program characteristics assist in online learning community development:

- Positive peer interactions:  The survey supported prior findings that student satisfaction "is strongly related to the amount of active interaction with other learners" and that "small group activities can enhance learning motivation".  However, it is important to note that while peer interactions contributed to satisfaction, only 26% felt that the most meaningful learning in the program came through interactions with others (!!!) which supports other cited research.

- Positive instructor interactions: The survey also supported prior research that positive teacher / student interactions positively influence 1) motivation, 2) course engagement and 3) learning achievement.  The lack of teacher involvement had the opposite effect.  Noted important instructional factors included teacher:

• responses to students' contributions in discussion topics,
  
• constant presence on the discussion boards,
  
• supportive phone calls,
  
• good response time and
• exhibited "thoughtfulness and caring".

- Adopting constructivists approaches to teaching and learning: The authors highlight the distinction between  a "teaching" curriculum and a "learning" curriculum (their objective) in which "knowledge is co-created by members of the learning community, with each person contributing his or her additional resources to the curriculum of the course."  Say it together now, "social constructivists"!  The results of the survey indicate that 86% felt they engaged in constructivist learning activities and that the interactions were beneficial to their learning.

- Cognitive growth through effectively facilitated critical discourse: 80% agreed that online discussions challenged them to think critically and provided a "safe" venue to express ideas.

- Accessibility and reliability of web-based technologies: Not real surprisingly, the study validated that technical difficulties diminished the "sense of community".  However, the variety and selection of the appropriate online tools (discussion boards, e-mail, etc)  were shown to be important to students' success.

- Institutional collaboration: This section of the survey addressed how the university "support" functions viewed the online learning community.  While all agreed they "contributed to the development of the online learning community", only 54 strongly agreed or agreed that the online community as an extension of the campus community!  Coincidentally, I just received an "invitation" to an interesting on campus seminar some hundreds of miles away that would not be made available to distance students :(

- Members' prior technological proficiency:  Students in the program "recognized and valued" each member's experience and contribution within the community.

My response as a student: As a student in a similar program, I agree with the major findings of this student survey.  I agree with the importance of creating a sense of community within an online learning setting.  The community (peer, teacher, institution) provides invaluable steering, insight, motivation and new ideas for me to ponder.  Online learning can be a very lonely place . . . hello, hello . . . is anyone out there and the learning community can help you feel connected. Working for hours on the computer, I often think of the old "if a tree falls" story . . . I'm working away, but is anyone out there to hear me (validate?) my work . . . However, as I have been reminded elsewhere this semester, does it matter to my education if they are or not?  

Yet, as the students in the survey noted, collaboration does not provide my primary source of "meaningful learning".  While I truly benefit from the constructive feedback of my peers and I learn a tremendous amount from reading their work, collaboration has a downside, too.  Beyond the headache of dealing with schedule coordination, collaboration on some projects leaves me feeling educationally short-changed.  I sometimes feel I miss pieces of the puzzle when I am in a jointly collaborating on assignments.  While teamwork and project management skills can be gained in a collaborative environment (don't adults get enough of that practice at work?), I feel that attaining such experience can stand in the way of learning.  I learn the most when I think things through (construct) on my own.  Granted, in life most "projects" are usually best done when tasks are shared and delegated.  However, I don't view learning in the same way as completing a "project".  Unlike a project, my education is not something that needs to "get done" in a speedy and efficient manner.  

Finally, I found the the comments on the connection with the "institution" and the accessibility of the web-based technologies to ring true, as well.  While the technology does not make the "education", it certainly is a primary facilitator.  If the system is down, you can't get to your learning community or most of your resources or materials.  If the system is poorly designed, you can't find things and time and opportunities are wasted.  In an online setting, you must not only rely on technology to facilitate your education, but to also provide a connection to the institution.  It is amazing how many things you take for granted in a f2f learning setting, such as using the library, getting a student ID card and attending ad hoc seminars with fellow students and professions. Also, when your only interaction with the institution is mediated by a piece of technology, you must work within the confines of the system's capabilities to get and stay connected with information gatekeepers and the resources they control.  

 

Job Aid for Online Learning

Job Aid for Online Learning

In a 2004 Sloan-C report created by Karen Swan, Kent State University and the Sloan-C Editor for Effective Practices in Learning Effectiveness, Relationships Between Interactions and Learning In Online Environments  provides an overview of research "about interaction online and its implications for practitioners". The report (effectively a job aid for those who teach or design in an online learning environment), highlights research findings regarding learner interaction in an online learning environment and the corresponding implications for those responsible for creating and managing it.  Some examples include:

Interaction with Content:

• Findings: "Online discussion may be more supportive of ... experimentation, divergent thinking ... than F2F discussion", whereas "Online discussion may be less supportive of ... convergent thinking, instructor directed inquiry ... than F2F discussion"
• Implication: To support divergent thinking, encourage multiple perspectives through open-ended discussion questions while encouraging diverse points of view.  To support convergent thinking, use other activities, such as group collaboration and written assignments.

Interaction with Instructors:

• Findings: Teaching presence (as well as quality, timeliness and quantity of the interaction and feedback) is linked to student learning. 
• Implication: Frequent, timely and supportive teacher interaction and feedback (both private and public) must be encouraged.

Interaction with Classmates:

• Findings: Learning occurs socially within "communities of practice" and is related to the quantity and quality of discussion posts, including the perceived value that the instructor places on them.
• Implications:Discussion participation must be highly valued within the instructional design and by the teacher.  In addition, other community-building activities must be incorporated and encouraged.

Interaction with Course Interfaces:

• Findings: The student’s impression and interaction with the course interface impact learning. Narration and animation can provide better learning than on-screen text alone, as can the learner-controlled pace of the presentation.
• Implications: Selection of best course platform and interface to support learning is crucial, including consistent interfaces for all courses.

Motivating Adult Learners

I came across an interesting article about motivating adult learners.  It highlights some key characteristics of adult learners and how course design should contemplate their learning styles.  While much of what is presented could be considered "common sense", it does do a good job of providing an overview of the unique characteristics of an adult learner, along with strategies to accommodate their learning and motivational needs. 

Central to the article is the definition of an adult learner - which could include college students.  This is important as it sets the stage for a discussion of how to establish a learning setting and motivation strageties for a more mature and self-motivated student who has more life experience, established habits and tastes, many obligations outside of class and (most importantly?) options. For the purpose of the article, the definition includes an individual who:

• "performs roles associated by our culture with adults", and
• "perceives himself / herself to be responsible for his/her own life".
  

Given the maturity level of an adult learner, the author proposes a learning environment that is rich with activities that "allow maximum participation by learners so they can invest their expereince and values in the learning process."  Suggestions include estabishing a learning environment that:

• encourages past experiences
• is collaborative between instructor-student and student-student
• incoroprates "experiential activities"

The role of the instructor is viewed as managing "the process", but not managing "the content" where the instructor primarily facilitates versus lectures.  Instructors should offer clarity, empathy and expertise, while always showing enthusiasm.  All of this builds credibility in the eyes of the adult learner.  Additionally, adult learners benefit from being "actively involved in establishing the learning objectives."  While the author warns that instructors should not allow students to "call the shots", instructors should provide students the opporutnity to take a stake in setting their objectives.

Suggested strategies to help motivate the adult learner include:

• presenting material in "chunks" and building on material using a "whole-part-whole" concept that begins with a wide view (to show the relevance, followed by the details, then a summary based on the whole
• making the material relevant (such as relating to the learner's current job) and explaining why the material is relevant (adult learners aren't always an easy "sell")
• providing a lot of documentation and options to explore the material
  
• establishing group interactions
• incorporating flexibility (1) to allow learners to try new things and (2) to accommodate their outside work and home life
  

Online Collaboration and Knowledge Construction

The linked paper is authored by members of the Florida State University Instructional Systems Program and published in Educational Technology & Society.  It is an excellent evaluation of the effectiveness of computers in an online learning environment to "function as cognitive tools . . . that extend student's capacity to learn and create knowledge."  Their observation is that current course management systems largely fall short of this goal.  They propose improved design to address (1) social structure (shared context) and (2) collaboration (knowledge construction) in an online learning environment.

Design support to create a shared social context: The authors propose that a shared social context is needed for "online learners to socialize, learn and create knowledge."  They note that it can be established by providing:

• Virtual environments to foster social relationships:  They point to research indicating "design of the virtual environment has to have the impact of being real and concrete"  to produce a feeling of "place" with the goal of increased and sustained user involvement in the online activities.  Suggestions include student lounges, space for personal information, virtual office hours, lecture halls and enhanced discussion forums.
  
• Informational support: This includes support for navigation and use within the learning environment itself (for example, providing assistance in selecting "features of interest").
• Multiple information channels and tools to support collaboration:  Learners need to be "aware" in order to act and react.  Awareness includes: social awareness (who is involved?), action awareness (what is happening?) and activity awareness (how is it going?).  The authors note that support for social and action awareness is often present, but activity awareness is rarely adequately addressed.  Yet, they propose that activity awareness (involving goals, plans, resources, understanding of others' actions, assessment of status) "is necessary for the successful implementation of complex and long-term tasks".  They suggest improved "joint workspace", enhanced notification systems and other tools to address gaps in awareness.
  

Design support that facilitates online communication:  A distinction is made between systems that "allow" collaboration and systems that "support" collaboration.  It is a fine distinction, but an important one as the ultimate goal of collaboration should be "knowledge construction".  The results of studies on knowledge construction in collaborative learning environments indicate that "the students' ability to conduct effective interactions with others was limited."  It was found that the focus was primarily on "observational or procedural matters" versus "knowledge construction where each member of the team contributed" to a consensus solution.  The authors propose both design intervention (for example, "communication scaffolds", "embedded communication tools", Gantt charts to display project status), but also intervention by online facilitators to support both communication, as well as to facilitate knowledge construction.

Teaching and Learning: Media Accumulation and Review

The linked article (Web 2.0:  A new wave of innovation for teaching and learning) by Bryan Alexander, Director of Research at the National Institute for Technology, was published in the March / April 2006 Educause Review.  It is a comprehensive media accumulation and review of "Web 2.0" technologies for use in teaching and learning settings -- see also my prior media accumulation post regarding Feedback and Collaboration tools. 

While there is no single agreement on a definition for "Web 2.0", it is widely used as the term to describe emerging web based technologies.  As outlined in this article, many of the Web 2.0 technologies fall into a category of "social software", including podcasts, blogs, wikis and other social networking tools.  These tools transform web content from static pages to dynamic content "blocks" or "microcontent" can be "saved, summarized, addressed, copied, quoted and built into new projects."  The collaboration aspect reflects the notion of "wisdom of crowds" where microcontent contributed by many ebbs and flows to form meaning in new and ever changing ways contributing to online communities of practice.  The author notes that these applications satisfy the desires to "discover, publish and share".  While these applications are not exclusive to learning settings, these desires are central to learning in general.

The media accumulation includes references to social bookmarking, social writing, social commentary and feedback, content aggregation and content search that can all assist in the teaching and learning process.  The bookmarking and content aggregation / search applications support discovery learning.  The writing applications allow for learner reflection and practice, as well as teacher / learner commentary and feedback.

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Additional Suggested Reading:  An additional media accumulation resources from Educause:  The Horizon Report 2006 Edition